A stimulating and informative course on the concepts and

methods that are current in investigations concerning the chemistry

of heredity was offered by the Third Annual Advanced Study Xnetitute

of Molecular Biology.

Spetsai, Greece, July 4 through July 16, 1966. Dr. Marianne

Grunberg-Mansgo (Paris) and Dr. A, Evdingelopoulos (Athens) were

responaible for arranging the Institute, which was sponsored by

NATO with some financial assistance from the U. S. Office of

Naval Research. The cooperation and generosity of the Greek

government also contributed to the success of the Institute. The

decision to hold this course in Greece stemmed from the growing

interest and activity in molecular biology in that country, and

a desire to stimulate that research by personal contact between

Greek investigators and their foreign colleaguerl.

The Institute was held MI the ieland of

The five hours of lectures each day were held in  the

morning and evening.

were used, Sane 25 lecturers from Greece, Great Britain, France,

Germany, Israel and the United States, each delivered between two

and four one-hour lectures, These were followed by lively discus-

sion periods, and the discussions continued through the afternoons

and late evenings. Reading lists and brief abstracts for each

lecture were distributed. The pleasant physical surroundings, the

The facilities of a small college on Spetsai

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absence of mechanized transportation, and the availability of

dormitory and hotel space in close proximity fostered the niaximum

contact between students, and students and lecturers. The

reoulting atmosphere was similar to that found at a Gordon

Conference. The 130 students (chosen from over 1000 applicante)

reprcscnted lli countries with the large majority fron i\estern

Europe, and Grecce (twenty came from North America). They ranged

from graduate students and recent graduates working in molecular

biology, to established investigators working in related fields.

The lectures assumed a basic knowledge of modern biochemistry and

genetics and started with a general review of the experiniental

findings on which che I.ntest concepts are based. Each speaker

then presented the most recent findings from his mrn laboratory

and since some of thie work is among e'he most exciting and elegant

being carried out in the field, a high level of scientific exuberance

was maintained.

An initial talic by I. Photaki (Athens) on modern methods for

the chemical cynthesis of peptides was followed by a group of

lectures on various aspects of the structure of nucleic acids. The

electronic structure of mononucleotides and polynucleotides was

discussed by B. Pullman (Paris). H, Boedtker (IIarvard) and P. Doty

(Wrvard) spoke on the physical propertics of €Ut\ and DNA, recpectively

and gave particular emphasis to the problem  inherent in the methods

that &re available for studying these molecules in solution.  Methods

€or obtaining and analyzing x-ray diffraction data for nucleic

acida, thus yielding infoxmation on the overall three-dimensional

configuration of these molecules, was discussed by R. Laneridge

(Cancer Research Foundation, Boston).

summarized the information on polynucleotide secondary structure

that has been derived from studies with synthetic polymers.

stressed the fact that the physical properties characteristic of

high molecular weight polynucleotldea begin to develop even with

dinucleotides.

within the structure is, in large part, responsible for their

stability  and their optical properties, while hydrogen bonds

control the specificity of base pairing.

hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines was further

elucidated by A. Rich (M.1.T.) who described recent studies on

crystalline complexes between derivatives of guanine and cytosine,

and, similarly, adenine and uracil, M. Cohn (U. of Penn.) discussed

the use of nuclear magnetic resonance in elucidating the nature of

the interaction between an enzyme, divalent metal ion, and nucleotide.

A. M. Michelaon (Paris)

He

Michelson also concluded that the stacking of baaes

The specificity of the

J. Su'atson (Harvard) introduced the next group of lectures with

a lucid description of current views on the mechanism of protein

biosynthesis and in particular the variety of roles played by RNA

in that process. He took special care to point out those areas

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which are in need of concentrated work.

mentioned agarin in the talks that followed.

lectured on what is known and what io not known about the structure

of the rtbooane and its components, ribooaplirl RNA and protein.  HQ

also undertook the difficult job of suosnsrizing and avalurring the

litaratura relevant to the biosyntheeie of riboeaues.

recent work on the primary structure of two serine transfer RNAs
Eraa yeast as an example, W, Zachau (Kb) spoke QR the primary and

secondary structure of transfer RNA, emphasizing the relation of

structure and function. Particularly useful for the artudents was

his detailed dcecription of the methodology used in work of this kind,

Many of there areas were

Thus, R. Monier (broeille)

Using his own

The biosynthesis of polyribonucleotides was the rrubject of

several detailed lecturee. 3. Richardson (Paris) eunmarized the

evidence that the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase is responsible for the

synthesitii of RNB within bacterial cells.

laboratoxies, he described the detaile of the mechanism of thts

reaction which have been elucidated during the pact year.

Grunberg-Manago emphasieed the cmaensua that polynucleotide phos-

phorylase la probably a degrddative enxyme in vivo, and want on to

describe recent 8tudie8 with the highly purified enzyme from 2. coli.

U. Z. Littauer (Rehwoth) and A. Peterkofsky (N.I.H.) discussed

enzymatically catalyzed structural modifications of polynucleotides.

The former talked on the methylation of RNA and DNA while the latter

Mentioning work from many

M.

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brought everyone up to date on the occurrence and synthesis of the
thionucleotidss in E. coli transfer RNA.  Theories and experiments
on the repllcation of viral RNA in VIVO and in vitro, a subject
which is under intensive study in several laboratories, was reviewd

by H. Boedtker.
determination of the structure of naturally occurring and synthetic
polynucleotides waa covered in a lecture that I gave.
cussed, in detail, the nucleases of E. coli and speculated on their

respective physiological roles,

The use of nucleases ae analytical tools for the

I also dis-

The next series of lectures concerned the mechanism of

translation of messenger RNA.

work that led to the chemical description of the genetic code.
"wobble theory" of codon-anticodon recognition was presented by

F.H.C. Crick (Cambridge, England) who also described experiments
with so-called phase shift mutanEs of T4 bacteriophage.  These latter

genetic experiments complement in vitro studies on the reading of the

genetec code. Recent experiments on the initlation of polypeptide

chain synthesis, which have led to the elucidation of specific

initiator codons on messenger RNA and related transfer RNAs were

deecribed by B.F.C. Clark (Cambridge, England). This topic was

discussed further by M. S. Bretscher (Cambridge, England), with

particular reference to the binding of transfer RNA to riboeanes.

Bretscher introduced the question of the mechanism of termination of

M. Grunberg-Planago gave a resume of

Tho

polypeptide chafns, whieh was discussed in more detail by A. Garan

(Yale).

data on becrerial euppresslon which have indicated a genetic control

of the epecificlty of codon translation.

factors involved in thier control are ipecific transfer me, was

presented by J. D. Watson In ai talk which deacribed in vitro protein

synthesis in systems utilizing RNA fran RM-containing bacteriophage

as mcabsengere.

orgslniams other than 1.

of the role of palyribosanes In in vitro systems derived from

reticulocytes as well a8 E. coli.

Garen's excellent lectures reviewed the genetfc and biochemical

Biochemical evidence that

A. Rich then reminded us that protein is made by

and Its phage and presented a review

The regulation of protein biosynthesis was presented from

       B. Ames (N.I.H.), uefxq5 his own work on the

several viewpoints,

histidine operon of Salmonella 8s an example, lectured on the general

nature of the opczron and theories of repression.

gave a review of the evante that follow the infection of E. &

with virulent and temperate bacteriophage.

in the reguliatfon of catabolic metabolism -8 given by I.  C. Gunealua

(U. of flllnols) who S~SO discuased the regulation of tryptophan

biosynthesis in detail.

E. FPlgner (M.I.Ts)

A more general visw of problems

In rccognithn of the growing interest of many molecular biologists

in the nervous oystem, E.S. Caneflakis (Yale) concluded the Znstitute

with a general review of the phyeiology and metabolism of the nerve cell.

Maxine F. Singer
National Inotftute of Arthritis and

Metabolic Dioeaseo

mtiOlaa1 XIkStitUteE Of Health