help manual emphasizing a doctor's prescribed program). These
findings suggest that the degree of consistency between attributions
for initial success and the orientation of the cessation approach can
affect the probability of relapse.

Social Factors

Smoking Cues

Most exposure to smoking-specific cues is socially mediated-e.g.,
watching others smoke. Such exposures have been labeled "social
contagion" (Shiffman and Jarvik 1987). Few studies have 888e88ed
social contagion directly. Many studies have, however, examined the
effect of having a spouse, friends, or coworkers who smoke.

The literature on the effect of spouse smoking status is surprising-
ly contradictory. Several studies report moderate-to-large increases
in the probability of relapse among subjects with a smoking spouse
(Campbell 1983; Graham and Gibson 1971; McIntyre-Kingsolver,
Lichtenstein, Mermelstein 1986; Tongas, Patterson, Goodkind 1976).
Some studies, though, report no effect of spousal smoking (Horwitz,
Hind&Alexander, Wagner 1985; Garvey, Heinold, Rosner, in press;
Swan et al., in press).

One possible explanation for the inconsistent findings is that the
influence of spousal smoking is so strong that it often prevents initial
cessation. This would cause the effect to be only sporadically
observed in maintenance. The effects of spouse smoking status may
also be complicated by interactions with social support. The risk
incurred by having a smoking spouse may be reduced or eliminated
if the spouse is supportive (Mermelstein, Lichtenstein, McIntyre
1983). This may be especially true if the spouse refrains from
smoking in the presence of the subject, thereby resulting in fewer
exposures to smoking cues.

The data on friend smoking are clearer. Several studies find that
subjects who have more smokers among their friends are more likely
to relapse (Eisinger 1971; Garvey, Heinold, Rosner, in press; Ockene
et al. 1982; Gottlieb et al. 1981; Goldstein 1981). One study failed to
replicate this effect (Swan et al., in press). Brandon, Tiffany, and
Baker (1986) found that smokers having a lapse cigarette in the
presence of other smokers progressed to regular smoking more
quickly than did other lapsers. The most parsimonious explanations
of these social contagion effects are that people with many smoking
friends tend to experience more exposure to smoking cues and that
cigarettes are likely to be more readily available to them.

Social Support

Social support can serve as a buffer to reduce the negative
psychological effects of stressors (Cobb 1976; Cohen, Sherrod, Clark

526


1986; Cohen and Wills 1985; Dean and Lin 1977). Correlational
studies have found that the level of perceived social support is
related to smoking cessation and maintenance. Coppotelli and
Orleans (1985), for example, examined the determinants of mainte-
nance among women who recently quit smoking. They found that a
measure of "partner facilitation" (problem solving, rewarding quit-
ting, understanding, listening, and facilitating coping responses)
accounted for 32 percent of the outcome variance at 6 to 8 week
postcessation. General social support from spouses, as well as
smoking-specific spousal support, has been related to smoking
treatment outcome (Horwitz, Hindi-Alexander, Wagner 1985; Mer-
melstein et al. 1986; Mermelstein, Lichtenstein, McIntyre 1983;
although see Glasgow et al. 1985).

Global Support

Global support has usually been assessed as perceived support.
Using the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL; Cohen and
Hoberman 1983) to measure support, Mermelstein and coworkers
(1986) found that greater perceived support (having someone to talk
to about personal matters) predicted maintenance at a 3-month
followup. However, the ISEL was unrelated to smoking status at 6 or
12 months, and the 3-month findings were not replicated in a second
study by the same investigators (Mermelstein et al. 1986). As noted
above, Coppotelli and Orleans (1985) found that women who reported
receiving greater support from their husbands were more likely to
maintain abstinence. There was no comparison group of male
subjects.

Smoking-Specific Support

Several studies have examined the role of social support directed
at smoking cessation. The most thorough investigations of specific
support have been conducted by researchers at the University of
Oregon, who developed the Partner Interaction Questionnaire (PIQ;
Mermelstein, Lichtenstein, McIntyre 1983) to assess perceived
helper behaviors. These investigators found that perceived help
fulness of partner behaviors was related to cessation and mainte-
nance. The actual number of partner behaviors was not related to
outcome; however, a measure of the character of the interactions
was related. A cluster of partner behaviors labeled "Support and
Encouragement" (e.g., expressing understanding or pride) was
related to maintenance of abstinence. In contrast, a cluster of
behaviors involving "Nagging and Policing" (Mermelstein, Lichten-
stein, McIntyre 1983) predicted relapse. Subsequent studies using
the PIQ have only partially replicated these findings (Lichtenstein,

527


Glasgow, Abrams, in press; Malott et al. 1984; McIntyre-Kingsolver,
Lichtenstein, Mermelstein 19861.

Other studies using other measures have also yielded mixed
results. In a large prospective study, Prochaska, DiClemente, and
colleagues (Prochaska and DiClemente 1983; DiClemente and Pro-
chaska 1985; Prochaska et al. 19851 reported that social support
predicted continuing abstinence. However, several other research
groups have failed to find evidence that smoking-specific support
aids maintenance (Evans and Lane 1981; Ockene et al. 1982; Garvey,
Heinold, Rosner, in press).

stress

Some studies have used the life events approach to the assessment
of stress (Holmes and Rahe 1967). This technique asks subjects about
major life events that have occurred since the subjects stopped
smoking. Most studies have found little or no relationship between
life stress events and relapse (Shapiro and Gunn 1985; Shiffman,
Read, Jarvik 1985). This may be because life stress events are
relatively uncommon.

Recent research on stress has begun to focus on more frequent and
smaller-scale stressors, which Lazarus and colleagues (1981) and
DeLongis and coworkers (1982) have called "Hassles." The Hassles
Scale assesses the frequency and perceived severity of everyday
stressors, such as having difficulties with coworkers or not having
enough time for recreation. Swan and colleagues (Swan and Denk, in
press; Swan et al., in press) found that hassles during the second
month of abstinence only weakly predicted outcomes at 1 year. The
effect of hassles was more reliable for men than for women.

A somewhat different approach to examining background stress
was taken by Cohen and his colleagues, who developed and used the
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The PSS measures perceived stress and
demoralization without reference to particular events or sources of
stress. Cohen and colleagues found that PSS scores did predict
relapse and that they were strongly associated with daily cigarette
consumption among recidivists.

Stress and coping theories of smoking imply that deficiencies in
personal resources for coping with stress may enhance the risk of
relapse (Wills and Shiffman 1985). Using the Ways of Coping
checklist, Ashenberg (1983) assessed how subjects who had quit
smoking coped with stress in situations that are often associated
with relapse. There were no differences between relapsers and
abstainers in the kinds of coping reported, but abstainers reported
using fewer coping strategies. The meaning of this finding is unclear.
Abstainers could have experienced less severe stress or less severe
threats to abstinence, and therefore needed fewer coping responses.
Conversely, abstainer coping responses could have been more

528


effective, therefore mitigating the need for more coping. Also, when
Ashenberg examined recidivists, stressful situations associated with
coping were found to be less likely to lead to relapse than those not
associated with coping.

Precipitating Factors
High-Risk Situations

A number of studies support the theory that initial smoking
following cessation tends to occur in specific t.ypes of high-risk
situations. Work by Marlatt and his associates (Marlatt and Gordon
1980, 1985) has identified craving/withdrawal, intrapersonal nega-
tive emotional states (e.g., frustration, boredom, and anxiety),
interpersonal conflict situations, and social pressure, both direct and
indirect, as common types of high-risk situations. Shiffman (1986c)
and Baer and Lichtenstein (in press) clustered data on the precipi-
tants of relapse crises and lapses.

Data from studies of relapee episodes confirm that smoking cues
are often involved in smoking relapse. Several studies report the
smoking of others in the immediate environment in one-half to
three-quarters of all relapse episodes (Brandon, Tiffany, Baker 1986;
Colletti, Supnick, Rizzo 1981; Baer and Lichtenstein, in press;
Shiffman 1982, 1986c; Cummings, Jaen, Giovino 1985). Many of
these same studies report that specific smoking stimuli (usually
seeing someone smoking) are responsible for precipitating 24 to 32
percent of all relapses (Shiffman 1982,1986c; GssipKlein et al. 1986;
Shapiro, OssipKlein, Stiggins 1983). Studies also report that relapse
crises in which someone else is smoking are more likely to result in a
smoking episode and in a shorter interval between the initial slip
and relapse (Brandon, Tiffany, Baker 1986; C&p-Klein et al. 1986;
Shiffman 1982).

Abrams and his colleagues (Abrams et al., in press; Chapter III)
have recently published data suggesting that individual differences
in reactivity to smoking cues may influence cessation and relapse. In
retrospective and prospective studies, these researchers found that
recidivists responded more strongly than successful quitters to
verbally presented smoking situations or to observations of another
smoking. Recidivists displayed more anxiety and showed greater
heart rats responses. It may be that responses elicited by smoking
stimuli (Saumet and Dittmar 1985) reflect conditioned responses to
nicotine effects.
Other smokers serve not only as cues for smoking but as sources of
cigarettes. In half of all relapse episodes, another smoker provides
the cigarettes that are smoked (Colletti, Supnick, Rizzo 1981; Baer
and Lichtenstein, in press; Cummings, Jaen, Giovino 1985). This does
not imply that the smokers exert social pressure to smoke; in most

529


cases, the ex-smoker specifically asks for a cigarette (Brandon,
Tiffany, Baker 1986).

Data on relapse episodes suggest that relapse also can be cued by
other stimuli or activities that have become associated with smoking
through contiguity, for instance, food, drink, or relaxation (Baer and
Lichtenstein, in press; Brandon, Tiffany, Baker 1986; OssipKlein et
al. 1986; Shiffman 1986b).

Studies of specific relapse episodes consistently suggest that stress
and negative affect play major roles in relapse. Findings from many
studies encompassing diverse samples reveal that the majority of
relapse episodes are preceded by negative affect (Brandon, Tiffany,
Baker 1986; Shiffman 1982, 198613; Marlatt and Gordon 1980;
Cummings, Marlatt, Gordon 1980; O'Connell and Martin 1987;
Gregory 1984; Baer and Lichtenstein, in press; O&p-Klein et al.
1986; Shapiro, OssipKlein, Stiggins 1983; Giovino et al. 1986;
Shapiro 1984). In some studies, as many as 9 out of 10 subjects report
negative affect (Coppotelli and Orleans 1985). The most frequently
reported emotion is anxiety, but boredom, depression, and anger are
also common.

Data suggest that the more severe the stress surrounding a
temptation to smoke, the higher the likelihood of smoking. Shiffman,
Bead, and Jarvik (1985) report a significant linear relationship
between stress and smoking in relapse crises. There are contradicb
ry data as to whether lapses associated with negative affect are
particularly likely to progress to full relapse (Brandon, Tiffany,
Baker 1986; O'Connell and Martin 1987). In sum, momentary stress
and distress are major factors in relapse episodes. It should be noted,
however, that these studies involve retrospective accounts of relapse
episodes.

The role of negative affect in relapse may change over time.
Cummings, Jaen, and Giovino (1985) report that early relapse
episodes are more likely to be precipitated by stress; later in
abstinence, alcohol and other appetitive cues become more promi-
nent.

Coping Strategies

Coping strategies can be used both to prevent (anticipatory coping)
and to directly respond to (immediate coping) high-risk situations. In
either case, the strategies used can be behavioral, consisting of
responses that are outwardly visible (e.g., leaving a party where
others are smoking, engaging in physical activities), or cognitive,
consisting of internal responses such as thoughts or images.

One of the most commonly used and studied anticipatory coping
strategies is stimulus control-the avoidance of stimuli associated
with smoking. Research on this strategy shows mixed outcomes,
yielding no definitive conclusions (Evans and Lane 1981; Horwitx,

530


Hind&Alexander, Wagner 1985; Prochaska and DiClemente 1983;
DiClemente and Prochaska 1985). Data on the relative efficacy of
cognitive and behavioral strategies weakly support the superiority of
cognitive strategies. Evans and Lane (1981) report weak indications
that successful maintainers were more likely to use cognitive
techniques rather than behavioral ones.

Immediate coping has been assessed in studies that examined
situations in which an ex-smoker was tempted to smoke. Studies of
immediate coping with the temptation to smoke typically compare
episodes in which smoking was averted with episodes in which
relapse occurred. Shiffman (1982, 1984b, 1985) found that failure to
perform any coping response was the single best predictor of
smoking in a tempting situation, accounting for nearly a quarter of
the variance in the outcomes of high-risk situations. This finding has
been directly and indirectly supported in several other studies
(Curry, Marlatt, Gordon 1987; OssipKlein et al. 1986; Shapiro, Ossip
Klein, Stiggins 1983; Sjoberg and Johnson 1978; Sjoberg and
Samsonowitz 1978). These studies consistently show immediate
coping to be effective in preventing smoking in a relapse-promoting
situation. One problem with all of these studies, however, is
retrospective bias. Subjects may introduce a self-justifying slant into
their responses. Unfortunately, it may be virtually impossible to
obtain prospective data on immediate coping.

Although there is no evidence that greater numbers of coping
responses are more effective, there is evidence that it is better to use
both cognitive and behavioral coping strategies when faced with a
risk situation (Curry, Marlatt, Gordon 1987; Shiffman 1982, 1984b).
Cognitive and behavioral coping are rather broad categories of
responses. The relative efficacy of specific responses within those
categories has also been examined in an attempt to identify effective
and ineffective coping responses. Shiffman (1984b) examined the
effectiveness of seven behavioral and eight cognitive coping strate-
gies. Only one type of coping was not more effective than no coping:
subjects who reported using self-punitive cognitions (berating oneself
for being tempted to smoke) to cope were as likely to relapse as
subjects who made no cognitive coping response. (See Glasgow et al.
1985, for parallel findings on cessation.) Self-punitive cognitions may
diminish self-efficacy and engender negative affect, which in turn
promotes smoking. Another finding from these comparative analyses
was that subjects who reported "willpower" as a means of cognitive
coping were significantly more likely to relapse (nearly half re-
lapsed) than subjects who used other cognitive coping responses.
Nevertheless, subjects who reported willpower fared better than
subjects who made no cognitive coping response at all.

These two distinctions notwithstanding, the effectiveness of vari-
ous coping responses was surprisingly uniform: 13 of the 15

531


responses were better than no response, but there were no signifi-
cant differences among these 13 responses. Curry, Marlatt, and
Gordon (1987) conducted a very similar set of analyses and arrived at
a similar conclusion.

Several studies have examined whether individual differences in
coping skill are associated with maintenance. The studies used
similar analog methods to assess coping skill: subjects were present-
ed with situations known to elicit desire to smoke, and their
responses to these situations were rated. These studies used both
retrospective and prospective analyses and had subjects respond
either to written or role-played coping scenarios (Abrams et al. 1987,
in press; Davis 1983; Davis and Glaros 1986; Shiffman, Maltese,
Jarvik 1982). Results of retrospective analyses showed that 6month
abstainers did not differ in coping skill from recidivists (Abrams et
al. 1987; Shiffman et al. 1985). Prospective studies also yielded little
evidence that coping skill protects against relapse. Such studies have
found no relationship between skill level and relapse likelihood,
although there was evidence that high-skill subjects took longer to
relapse (Abrams et al. 1987, in press; Davis 1983; Davis and Glaros
1986). Also, Davis and Glaros (1986) showed that a skill-based
treatment increased the level of smoker coping skills asses&
immediately posttreatment but did not enhance smoker followup
performance.

Abstinence Violation Effect

Marlatt and Gordon (1980, 1985) define the Abstinence Violation
Effect (AVE) as an attributional construct that mediates the
transition from an initial lapse to a full-blown relapse. Curry,
Marlatt, and Gordon (1987) found that individuals who smoked but
did not return to regular smoking ("slippers") reported significantly
greater AVEs than those who relapsed following an initial slip.
Brandon, Tiffany, and Baker (1986) reported that only one-third of
their subjects (N= 72) used any coping response after a lapse and
that the occurrence of coping was unrelated to relapse probability or
speed of relapse.

Summary and Conclusions

1. Tobacco dependence can be treated successfully.
2. Effective interventions include behavioral approaches and
behavioral approaches with adjunctive `pharmacologic treat-
ment.

3. Behavioral interventions are most effective when they include
multiple components (procedures such as aversive smoking,
skills training, group support, and self-reward). Inclusion of too

532


many treatment procedures can lead to a less successful
outcome.

4. Nicotine replacement can reduce tobacco withdrawal symp
tams and may enhance the efficacy of behavioral treatment.

533


References

ABRAM& D.B. Roles of psychosocial stress, smoking cues and coping in smoking-
relapse prevention. Health Psychology MSupplement):91-92, 1986.
ABRAM& D., MONT& P., CAREY, K., PINTO, P., JACOBUS, S. Reactivity to
smoking cues and relapse: Two studies of discriminant validity. Behauiour
Research and Therapy, in press.

ABRAMS, D.B., MONTI, P.M., PINTO, R.P., ELDER, J.P., BROWN, R.A., JACOBUS,
S.I. Psychosocial stress and coping in smokers who relapse or quit. Health
Psychology 6(4):269-363, 1987.

ABUEG, F.R., COLLEITI, G., RIZZO, A.A. The saliva thiocyanate analysis: A
methodological extension and its relationship to CO and self-report in moderate
smokers. Addictive Behaviors 11:55-58, 1966.
AITKEN, P.P. Peer group pressures, parental controls and cigarette smoking among
10 to 14 year olds. British Journal ofSocial and Clinical Psychology 19(2):141-146,
  1980.

AMERICAN HOSPITAL FORMULARY SERVICE. Miscellaneous autonomic drugs:
Nicotine polacrilex. In: Drug Information. Bethesda, Maryland American Society
of Hospital Pharmacists, 1987, pp. 716-715.
AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION. Diagnostic and StatisticaI Manual of
MentaZ Disorders. Washington, DC.: American Psychiatric Association, 1980.
AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
MentaZ Disorders, Third Edition, Revised. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric
Association, 1987.

ASHENBERG, Z.S. Smoking recidivism: The role of stress and coping. Doctoral
Dissertation. Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ann Arbor, University
Microfilms International, Thesis No. 84-62189, 1983.
ASHLEY, M.J. Smoking and women. In: Forbes, W.F., Frecker, R.C., Nostbakken, D.
(eds.) Proceedings of the Fifth World Co n erence on Smoking and Health, Volume 1.
                    f
Winnipeg, Canada: Canadian Council on Smoking and Health, 1983, pp. 7-24.
BAER, D.S., McCLEARN, G.E., WILSON, J.R. Effecta of chronic administration of
tobacco smoke to mice: Behavioral and metabolic measures. Psychopharmacology
67(2):131-137, 1980.

BAER, J.S., HOLT, C.S., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Self-efficacy and smoking reexamined:
Construct validity and clinical utility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology 54(6WG-652, December 1986.
BAER, J.S., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Classification and prediction of smoking relapse
episodes: An exploration of individual differences. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, in press.

BAER, J.S., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Cognitive assessment in smoking cessation. In:
Marlatt, G.A., Donovan, D.M. (ads.) Assessment of Addictive Behaviors. New York:
Guilford Press, in press.

BAKER, L.J., DEARBORN, M., HASTINGS, J.E., HAMBERGER, K. Type A behavior
in women: A review. Health Psychology $533477-497, 1964.
BAKER, T.B., CANNON, D.S., TIFFANY, S.T., GINO, A. Cardiac response as an index
of the effect of aversion theory. Behaviour Research and Thempy 22:403411,1984.
BAKER, T.B.. MORSE, E., SHERMAN, J.E. The motivation to take drugs: A
psychobiological analysis of urges. In: Rivers, C. (ed.1 Nebraska Symposium on
Motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1987, pp. 257-323.
BALFOUR, D.J.K. The effects of nicotine on brain neurotransmitter systems. In:
Balfour, D.J.K. (ed.1 Nicotine and the Tobacco Smoking Habit. Oxford: Pergamon
Press, 1984, pp. 61-74.

BANDURA, A. Selfefficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review 84:191-215, 1977a.
BANDURA, A. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
  1977b.

534


BANDURA, A. Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist
37(2):122-147, February 1982.

BANKS, M.H., BEWLEY, B.R., BLAND, J.M. Adolescent attitudes to smoking: Their
influence on behavior. International Journal of Health Education 2q039-44,
  1981.

BARON, J.A. Smoking and estrogen-related disease. American Journal of Epidemiolo-
gy 119(1):9-22, 1984.

BARTON, J., CHASSIN, L., PRESSON, CC., SHERMAN, S.J. Social image factors as
motivators of smoking initiation in early and middle adolescence. Child L&uelop-
ment X+(6):1499-1511, December 1982.

BARYLKO-PIKIELNA, N., PANGBORN, R.M. Effect of cigarette smoking on urinary
and salivary thiocyanates. Archives of Environmental Health 17:739-745, Novem-
ber 1968.

BAUGH, J.G., HUNTER, S.M., WEBBER, L.S., BERENSON, G.S. Developmental
trends of first smoking experience of children: The Bogalusa Heart Study.
American Journal of Plrblic Health 71:5969, 1982.
BAUMRIND, D. Familial antecedents of adolescent drug use: A developmental
perspective. In: Jones, C.L., Battjes, R.J. (eds.) Etiology of Drug Abuse: Implications
for Prevention, NIDA Research Monograph 56. US. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health
Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985, pp. 13-44.
BEAVER, C., BROWN, R.A., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Effects of monitored nicotine fading
and anxiety management training on smoking reduction. Addictive Behaviors
6(4):301-365, 1981.

BENOWITZ. N.L., JACOB, P. III, KOZLGWSKI, L.T., YU, L. Influence of smoking
fewer cigarettes on exposure to tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide. New England
Journal of Medicine 31X21):1310-1313, November 20, 1986.
BENOWITZ, N.L., HALL, SM., HERNING, R.I., JACOB, P. III, JONES, R.T.,
OSMAN, A.-L. Smokers of low-yield cigarettes do not consume less nicotine. New
England Journal of Medicine 309(3):129-142, July 21, 1983.
BENOWITZ, N.L., JACOB, P. III, SAVANAPRIDI, C. Determinants of nicotine intake
while chewing nicotine polacrilex gum. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
41:467-473, 1987.

BEN-SIRA, Z. Health promoting function of mass media and reference groups:
Motivating or reinforcing of behavior change. Social Science and Medicine
16(7):825834, 1982.

BERGLER, R. Advertising and Cigarette Smoking. A Psychological Study. Vienna:
Hans Huber Publishers, 1981.

BERKOWITZ, B., ROSSTOWNSEND, A., KOHBERGER, R. Hypnotic treatment of
smoking: The single-treatment method revisited. American Journal of Psychiatry
136(1):83-65, January 1979.

BEST, J.A., FLAY, B.R., TOWSON, S.M.J., RYAN, K.B., PERRY, C.L., BROWN, K.S.,
KERSELL, M.W., D'AVERNAS, J.R. Smoking prevention and the concept of risk.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 14(3):257-273, 1984.
BEST, J.A., OWEN, L.E., TRENTADUE, L. Comparison of satiation and rapid
smoking in self-managed smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors 3(2):71-78, 1978.
BEWLEY, B.R., BLAND, J.M., HARRIS, R. Factors associated with the starting of
cigarette smoking by primary school children. British Journal of Prevention and
Social Medicine 28f037-44, February 1974.
BIGELOW, G., OSSIP-KLEIN, D.J. (eds.) Classification and assessment of smoking
behavior. Health Psychology 5 (Supplement):3-11, 1986.
BIGELOW, G.E., STITZER, M.L., LIEBSON, J.A. Substance abuse. In: Hersen, M. ted.)
. Pharmacological and Behavioral Treatment: An Integrative Approach. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1986, pp. 289-311.

535


BIGLAN, A., LICHTENSTEIN, E. A behavior-analytic approach to smoking acquisi-
tion: Some recent findings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 14(3):207-223,
  1984.

BLECHMAN, E.A. (sd.) Behavior Modifkation with Women. New York: Guilford,
  1984.

BLISS, R.E., O'CONNELL, K.A. Problems with thiocyanate as an index of smoking
status: A critical review with suggestions for improving the usefulness of
biochemical measures in smoking cessation research. Health psrChology
3(6):563581, 1984.

BOTVIN, G.J., ENG, A., WILLIAMS, CL. Preventing the onset of cigarette smoking
through life skills training. I+euentiue Medicine 9(11:135-143, January 1980.
BOTVIN, G.J., WILLS, T. Personal and social skills training: Cognitive-behavioral
approaches to substance abuse prevention. In: Bell, C.S., Battjes, R. (eda.)
Prevention Research: Deterring Drug Abuse Among Children and Adoleecente,
NIDA Research Monograph 63. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration,
National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1985.

BOWERS, T.G., WINEIT, R.A., FREDERIKSEN, L.W. Nicotine fading, behavioral
contracting, and extended treatment: Effects on smoking cessation. Addictive
Behauionr 12181-184, 1987.

BRANDON, T.H., TIFFANY, S.T., BAKER, T.B. The process of smoking relapse. In:
Tims, FM., Leukefeld, C.G. teds.1 ReZapse and Recovery in Drug Abuse, NIDA
Research Monograph 72. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, Nation-
al Institute on Drug Abuse. DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 861473, 1986.
BRANDON, T.H., ZELMAN, D.C., BAKER, T.B. Effects of maintenance sessions on
smoking relapse: Delaying the inevitable? Journal of Consulting and Clinical
W~hology, in press.

BRANTMARK, B., OHLIN, P., WESTLING, H. Nicotine containing chewing gum as
an anti-smoking aid. Psychopharmacolqia 31(3):191-200, 1973.
BRINTON, L.A., SCHAIRER, C., HAENSZEL, W., STGLLEY, P., LEHMAN, H.F.,
LEVINE, R., SAVITZ, D.A. Cigarette smoking and invasive cervical cancer.
Journal of the American Medical Association 255(23):3265-3269, June 26, 1986.
BRITISH THORACIC SOCIETY. Comparison of four methods of smoking withdrawal
in patients with smoking related diseases. British Medical Journal
286@366):595-597, February 19, 1983.

BROD, M., HALL, SM. Joiners and non-joiners in smoking treatment: A comparison
of psychosocial variables. Addictive Behauion, X2):217-221, 1984.
BRODY, C.M. Women's Thempy Groups: Pamdigms of Feminist Treatment. New
York: Springer, 1987.

BROWN, R.A., LICHTENSTEIN, E., MCINTYRE, K.O., HARRINGTON-KOSTUR, J.
Effects of nicotine fading and relapse prevention on smoking cessation. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 52(2):307308, 1984.
BROWNELL, K.D., MARLAll', G.A., LICHTENSTEIN, E., WILSON, G.T. Under-
standing and preventing relapse. American &choZogist 41(7):765-782, July 1986.
BRUNO, J.E., DOSCHER, L. Patterns of drug use among Mexican-American potential
school dropouts. In: Eiseman, S., Wingard, J.A., Huba, G.J. (eds.) Drug Abuse:
Foundations for a Psychosocial Approach. Farmingdale, New York: Baywood
Publishing Company, 1984, pp. 152-161.

BRUNSWICK, A.G., MESSERI, P.A. Gender differences in the processes leading to
cigarette smoking. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology 249-69, 1984.
BURDEN, D.S., GO'M'LIEB, N. Women's socialization and feminist groups. In: Brody,
C.M. @I.) Women's Therapy Groups: Paradigms of Feminist Treatment. New York:
Springer, 1987, pp. 24-39.

536


BURLING, T.A., STITZER, M.L., BIGELOW, G.E., MEAD, A.M. Smoking topography
and carbon monoxide levels in smokers. Addictive Behaviors 10~319-323, 1985.
BURNS, B.H. Chronic chest disease, personality, and success in stopping cigarette
smoking. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine 2323-37, 1969.
CAMPBELL, LA. Predictive factors for smoking withdrawal in patients. In: Forbes,
W.F., Frecker, R.C., Nostbakken, D. teds.) Proceedings of the Fifth World
Conference on Smoking and Health. Winnipeg, Canada: Canadian Council on
Smoking and Health, 1983, pp. 165-169.

CAMPBELL, I.A., LYONS, E., PRESCO'IT, R.J. Stopping smoking: Do nicotine
chewing gum and postal encouragement add to doctors' advice? Practitioner
231:114-117, 1987.

CANNON, D.S., BAKER, T.B., GINO, A., NATHAN, P.E. Alcohol-aversion therapy:
Relation between strength of aversion and abstinence. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 54(6):825-830, December 1986.
CARL, L.S. Self-Planned Cessation: A Retrospective Study of the Strategies and
Resources Used by Individuals in Quitting and Remaining Quit. Doctoral
Dissertation. University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. Ann Arbor, University
Microfilms International, Thesis No. 81-08458, 1980.
CARTWRIGHT, A., MARTIN, F.M., THOMSON, J.G. Distribution and development
of smoking habits. Lancet 2(7105):725-727, October 31, 1959.
CASTRO, F.G., MADDAHIAN, E., NEWCOMB, M.D., BENTLER, P. A multivariate
model of the determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents. Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, in press.

CHARLTON, A. Smoking and weight control in teenagers. Public Health (London)
98:277-281, 1984.

CHASSIN, L., PRESSON, C., SHERMAN, S.J. Cognitive and social influence factors
in adolescent smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors 9L483-390, 1984.
CHASSIN, L., PRESSON, C.C., SHERMAN, S.J. Stepping backward in order to step
forward: An acquisition-oriented approach to primary prevention. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 53(5):612-622, 1985.
CHEREK, D.R. Effects of smoking different doses of nicotine on human aggressive
behavior. Psychopharmacology 75(4):33%345. December 1981.
CHRISTEN, A.G., GLOVER, E.D. Psychological satisfactions derived from smoking
cigarettes in fifty-seven dental patients. Journal of Drug Education 13W95102,
  1983.

CLAIBORN, W.L., LEWIS, P., HUMBLE, S. Stimulus satiation and smoking: A
revisit. Journal of Clinical Psychology 28(7):4X-419, 1972.
CLAVEL, F., BENHAMOU, S., COMPANY-HUERTAS, A., FLAMANT, R. Helping
people to stop smoking; randomized comparison of groups being treated with
acupuncture and nicotine gum with control group. British Medical Journal
291(6508):1538-1539, November 30, 1985.
COBB, S. Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine
38(5):300-314, September-October 1976.

COELHO, R.J. Self-efficacy and cessation of smoking. Psychological Reports
54(1):309-310, February 1984.

COHEN, S., HOBERMAN, H.M. Positive events and social supports 88 buffers of life
change stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 13(2):99-125, March-April
  1983.

COHEN, S., LICHTENSTEIN, E., MERMELSTEIN, R., KINGSOLVER, K.. BAER, J.
S., KAMARCK, T. W. Social support interventions for smoking cessation. In:
Gottlieb, B.H. (eds.) Creating Support Groups: Formats, Processes and Effect-s. New
York: Sage, in press.

COHEN, S., SHERROD, D.R., CLARK, M.S. Social skills and the stress-protective role
of social support. Journal of Personality and Social Peychologr 50963-973, 1986.

537


COHEN, S., WILLS, T.A. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis.
Psychological Bulletin 9&2):31&357, 1985.
COLLE'ITI, G., KOPEL, S.A. Maintaining behavior change: An investigation of three
maintenance strategies and the relationship of self-attribution to the long-term
reduction of cigarette smoking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
47t3k614-617, 1979.

COLLETM, G., SUPNICK, J.A., PAYNE, T.J. The Smoking Self-Efficacy Question-
naire @SE&): Preliminary scale development and validation. Behavioral Assesa-
ment 7249-260, 1985.

COLLETTI, G., SUPNICK, J.A., RIZZQ, A.A. An Analysis of Relapse Dstenninnnta for
D-co&d Smoken. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association, Los Angeles, California, August 1981.
COLLEITI, G., SUPNICK, J.A., RIZZO, A.A. Long-term follow-up (3-4 years) of
treatment for smoking reduction. Addictive Behaviors 7(4):429-03, 1982.
CONDIOlTE, M.M., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Self-efficacy and relapse in smoking
cessation programs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Peychology 49(5):-,
October 1981.

CONNE'IT, J.E., STAMLER, J. Responses of black and white males to the special
intervention program of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. American
Heart Journal 108839848, September 1984.
COOMBS, R.H., FAWZY, I.F., GERBER, B.E. Patterns of cigarette, alcohol and other
drug use among children and adolescents: A longitudinal study. The Znternationul
Journal of the Addictions 21(8):897-913, 1986.
COONEY, N.L., KOPEL, S.A. Controlled Relapse: A Social Learning Approach to
Reventing Smoking Recidivism. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Psychological Association, Montreal, Canada, September 1986.
COOPER, R., DAVID, R. The biological concept of race and ita application to public
health and epidemiology. Journnl of Health Politics, Policy and Law 11(1):97-116,
  1986.

COOPER, R., SIMMONS, B.E. Cigarette smoking and ill health among Black
Americans. New York State Journal of Medicine %X7):344-349, July 1985.
COPPOTELLI, H.C., ORLEANS, C.T. Partner support and other determinants of
smoking cessation maintenance among women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology 5X4):455-460, August 1985.

CORTY, E., McFALL, R.M. Response prevention in the treatment of cigarette
smoking. Addictive Behaviors 9405-408, 1984.
COYNE, J.C., DELONGIS, A. Going beyond social support: The role of social
relationships in adaptation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical &choiogy
54(4):454-460, August 1986.

CUMMINGS, KM., GIOVINO, G., JAEN, C.R., EMRICH, L.J. Reports of smoking
withdrawal symptoms over a 21 day period of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors
10:373-381, March 1985.

CUMMINGS, K.M., GIOVINO, G., MENDICINO, A.J. Cigarette advertising and racial
differences in cigarette brand preferences. Public Health Reports 102(6):698701,
November-December 1987.

CUMMINGS, K.M., JAEN, CR.. GIOVINO, G. Circumstances surrounding relapse in
a group of recent exsmokers. Preventive Medicine 14(2):195202, 1985.
CUMMINGS, J.R., GORDON, J., MARLATI', G.A. Relapse: Prevention and predic-
tion. In: Miller, W.R. ted.) The Addictive Behaviors. Treatment of Alcoholism, l)rug
Abuse, Smoking, and Obesity. Oxford: Pergamon, 1986, pp. 291321.
CURRY, S. Cigarette Smoking Among Women: Prevention and Intervention. Paper
presented at the 29th Annual Convention of the Association for the Advancement
of Behavior Therapy, Chicago, November 1986.

538


CURRY, S., MARLA'IT, G.A.. GORDON, J.R. Abstinence violation effect: Validation
of an attributional construct with smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 5X2):145-149, 1987.
DANAHER, B.G. Research on rapid smoking: Interim summary and recommenda-
tions. Addictive Behaviors 2:X1-166, 1977.
DANAHER, B.G., JEFFERY, R.W., ZIMMERMAN, R., NELSON, E. Aversive
smoking using printed instructions and audiotape adjuncts. Addictive Behavion
5(4):353-358, 1980.
DANIELL, H.W. Osteoporosis of the slender smoker. Vertebral compression fractures
and loss of metacarpal cortex in relation to postmenopausal cigarette smoking and
lack of obesity. Archives of Internal Medicine X%X3):298-364, March 1976.
DAVIS, J.R. Relapse Prevention and Smoking Cessation. Doctoral Dissertation. Wayne
State University, Detroit, Michigan. Ann Arbor, University Microfilms Intema-
tional, Thesis No. 83-15586, 1983.
DAVIS, J.R., GLAROS, A.G. Relapse prevention and smoking cessation. Addictive
Behaviors 11:105-114, 1986.
DAVIS, R.M. Current trends in cigarette advertising and marketing. New England
Journal of Medicine 316(12):725-732, March 19, 1987.
DAVISON, G.C., VALINS, S. Maintenance of self-attributed and drug-attributed
behavior change. Journal of Personality and Social Z%ychology 11:25-33, 1969.
DEAN, A., LIN, N. The stress-buffering role of social support. The Journal of Nervous
and Mental Disease X5:403-417, 1977.
DELONGIS, A., COYNE, J.C., DAKOF, G., FOLKMAN, S., LAZARUS, R.S. Relation-
ship of daily hassles, uplifts, and major life events to health status. Health
Psychology 1(2):119-136, 1982.
DEMBROSKI, T.M. Stress and substance interaction effects on risk factors and
reactivity. Behavioml Medicine Update 6(3):16-20, 1984.
DEMELLWEEK, C., GOUDIE, A.J. Behavioural tolerance to amphetamine and other
psychostimulants: The case for considering behavioural mechanisms. Peychophar-
macologv 80287-307, 1983.
DENISTON, R.W. Cancer knowledge, attitudes and practices among black Americans.
In: Mettlin, C., Murphy, G.P. (eds.) Cancer Among Black Populations. New York:
Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1981, pp. 225-237.
DICLEMENTE, C.C. Self-efficacy and smoking cessation maintenance: A preliminary
report. Cognitive Therapy and Research M2):175-187, June 1981.
DICLEMENTE, C.C. Self-efficacy and the addictive behaviors. Journal of Social and
Clinical Wychology 4362-315, 1986.
DICLEMENTE, CC., PROCHASKA, J.O. Processes and stages of change: Coping and
competence in smoking behavior change. In: Shiffman, S., Wills, T.A. (eds.) Coping
and Substance Use. Orlando: Academic Press, 1985, pp. 319-343.
DICLEMENTE, C.C., PROCHASKA, J.O., GIBERTINI, M. Self-efficacy and the stages
of self-change of smoking. Cognitive Thempy and RaPearch 9181-200, 1985.
DOBBS, S.D., STRICKLER, D.P., MAXWELL, W.A. The effects of stress and
relaxation in the presence of stress on urinary pH and smoking behaviors.
Addictive Behaviors 6(4):345-353, 1981.
DOMINO, E.F. Behavioral, electrophysiological, endocrine and skeletal muscle
actions of nicotine and tobacco smoking. In: Remond, A., Izard, C. (eds.1
Electraphysiological Effects of Nicotine.  Amsterdam: ElsevierlNorth-Holland
Biomedical Press, 1979, pp. 133-146.
DUNN, W.L. Jr. (ed.) Smoking Behavior: Motives and Incentives. Washington, D.C.:
V.H. Winston and Sons, 1973.
EDMUND& C.W. On the action of lobeline. American Journal of Physiology 11:79,
  1994.
EISINGER, R.A. Psychological predictors of smoking recidivism. Journal of Health
and Social Behavior 12:355-362, December 1971.


EISINGER, R.A. Psychosocial predictors of smoking behavior change. Social Science
and Medicine 6(1):137-144, February 1972.
ELLIOlT, C.H., DENNEY, D.R. A multiple-component treatment approach to
smoking reduction. Journal of Consulting and CZinical Wychology 46(6):133(j1339,
  1978.

EMONT, S.L., CUMMINGS, K.M. Weight gain following smoking cessation: A
possible role for nicotine replacement in weight management. Addictive Behauiom
12:151-155, 1987.

ENG, E., HATCH, J., CALLAN, A. Institutionalizing social support through the
church and into the community. Health Education Quurterly 1%1):81-92, Spring
1985.

ENGELMAN, L., HARTIGAN, J.A. K-means clustering. In: Dixon, W.J. bd.) BMDP
Statistical Software. Berkeley: University of California, 1981.
ENSMINGER, M.E., BROWN, C.H., KELLAM, S.G. Sex differences in antecedenti of
substance use among adolescents. Journal of Social Issues 38(2W5-42. 1982.
EPSTEIN, L.H., CLUSS, P.A. A behavioral medicine perspective on adherence to long-
term medical regimens. Journal of Consulting and Clinical wyehology
50(6):950-971, 1982.

ERICKSON, L.M., TIFFANY, S.T., MARTIN, E.M., BAKER, T.B. Aversive smoking
therapies: A conditioning analysis of therapeutic effectiveness. Behaviour Re-
search and !l'hempy 21(6):595-611, 1983.
ERSHLER, J., LEVENTHAL, H., FLEMING, R., GLYNN, K. The quitting experience
for smokers in sixth through twelfth grades. Addictive Behaviors, in press.
ESSMAN, W.B. Nicotine-related neurochemical changes: Some implications for
motivational mechanisms and differences. In: Dunn, W.L. Jr. ted.1 Smoking
Behavior: Motives and Incentives. Washington, D.C.: V.H. Winston and Sons, 1973,
pp. 514.

ElXINGEFt, B.D., GREGORY, V.R., LANDO, H.A. Influence of group cohesion on the
behavioral treatment of smoking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Atychology
52(6):108&1086, 1984.

EVANS, D., LANE, D.S. Smoking ceesation follow-up: A look at postworkshop
behavior. Addictive Behavior 6(4):32&329, 1981.
EVANS, R.I. Smoking in children: Developing a social psychological strategy to
deterrence. Preventive Medicine 5122-127, 1976.
EVANS, R.I., ROZELLE, R.M., MI'ITELMARK, MB., HANSEN, W.B., BANE, A.L.,
HAVIS, J. Deterring the onset of smoking in children: Knowledge of immediate
physiological effects and coping with peer pressure, media pressure, and parent
modeling. Journal of Applied Social Wychology 8(2):126X% April-June 1978.
FAGERBTROM, K. Measuring degree of physical dependence on tobacco smoking
with reference to individualization of treatment. Addictive Behaviore
3(3/4):23&241, 1978.

FAGERBTROM, K.-O. Effecta of a nicotine-enriched cigarette on nicotine titration,
daily cigarette consumption, and levels of carbon monoxide, cotinine, and nicotine.
Psychopharmacology 77(2):X%-167, June 1982a.
FAGERSTROM, K. A comparison of psychological and pharmacological treatment in
smoking cessation. Journal of Behavioml Medicine 5(3):343-351, September 1986.
FAGERSTROM, K.-O. Effects of nicotine chewing gum and follow-up appointmenta in
physician-based smoking cessation. Preventive Medicine 1X5):517-627, September
1984.

FAGERSTROM, K.-O. Reducing the weight gain after stopping smoking. Addictive
Behaviors 12:91-93, 1987.

FAGERSTROM, K.-O. Efficacy of nicotine chewing gum: A review. In: Pomerleau. 0..
Pomerleau, C. (eds.) Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Evaluation. New York: Alan
R. Liss, in press.

540


FAGERSTRC)M, K.-O., MELIN, B. Nicotine chewing gum in smoking cessation:
Efficiency, nicotine dependence, therapy duration, and clinical recommendations.
In: Grabowski, J., Hall, S. (eds.) Pharmacological Adjuncts in Smoking Cessation,
NIDA Research Monograph 53. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration,
National Institute on Drug Abuse. DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 851333,1985, pp.
  102-109.

FAGERSTROM, K.-O., STROM, H.G. The effects of different instructions on smoking
cessation for individuals with different degrees of dependence. Behaviouml
Psychothempy 9(4):31&315, 1981.

FEE, W.M., STEWART, M.J. A controlled trial of nicotine chewing gum in a smoking
withdrawal clinic. Practitioner 226(1363):148-151, January 1982.
FERNO. O., LICHTNECKERT, S., LUNDGREN, C. A substitute for tobacco smoking.
Psychopharmacologia 31:201-204. 1973.

FISHER, D.A., MAGNUS, P. "Out of the mouths of babes..." The opinions of 10 and 11
year old children regarding the advertising of cigarettes. Community Health
Studies 5(1):22-26, 1981.

FLAY, B.R. Psychosocial approaches to smoking prevention: A review of findings.
Health Wychology 4(5):449-488, 1985a.

FLAY, B.R. What we know about the social influences approach to smoking
prevention: Review and recommendations. In: Bell, C.S., Battjes, R. (eds.) Preuen-
tion Research: Deterring LIrug Abuse Among Children and Adolescents, NIDA
Research Monograph 63. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, Nation-
al Institute on Drug Abuse. 198513, pp. 67-112.
FLEMING, R., LEVENTHAL, H., GLYNN, K., ERSHLER, J. The role of cigarettes in
the initiation and progression of early substance use. Addictive Behaviors, in press.
FOXX, R.M., AXELROTH, E. Nicotine fading, self monitoring and cigarette fading to
produce cigarette abstinence or controlled smoking. Behauiour Research and
Therapy 21(1):17-27, 1983.

FOXX, R.M., BROWN, R.A. Nicotine fading and self-monitoring for cigarette
abstinence or controlled smoking. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
12(1):111-125, 1979.

FRANK, R.G., UMLAUF, R.L., WONDERLICH, S.A., ASHKANAZI, G.S. Hypnosis
and behavioral treatment in a worksite smoking cessation program. Addictive
Behaviors 11:59-62, 1986.

FREDERICKSEN, L.W. Controlled smoking. In: Krasnegor, N.A. (ed.) Behauiornl
Analysis and Treatment of Substance Abuse, NIDA Research Monograph 25. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug
Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse.
1979, pp. 128-139.

FRIEDMAN, G.D., SIDNEY, S., POLEN, M.R. Smoking habits among multiphasic
examinees, 1979 to 1984. Western Journal of Medicine 145(5):651&56, November
1986.

FRIEDMAN, L.S., LICHTENSTEIN, E., BIGLAN, A. Smoking onset among teens: An
empirical analysis of initial situations. Addictive Behaviors lO:l-13, 1985.
FULLER, J.A. Smoking withdrawal and acupuncture. The Medical Journal of
Australia 128-29, 1982.

GAMBRILL, E.D., RICHEY, C.A. Criteria used to define and evaluate socially
competent behavior among women. Psychology of Women Quarterly 10(1):183-196,
March 1986.

GARVEY, A.J., HEINOLD, J.W., ROSNER. Self-help approaches to smoking cessa-
tion: A report from the normative aging study. Addictive Behaviors, in press.

541


GARVEY, H.A., HITCHCOCK, J.L. Relapse after smoking cessation: A proepectiw
analysis. Presented at the meeting of the Annual Conference American Psycholog-
ical Association, New York, New York, August 1987.
GILBERT, D.G. Paradoxical tranquilizing and emotion-reducing effects of nicotine.
Psychological Bulletin 86(4):643-661, July 1979.
GILBERT, D.G., HAGEN, R.L. The effects of nicotine and extraversion on self-report,
skin conductance, electromyographic, and heart responsea to emotional stimuli
Addictive Behaviors 5(3):247-257, 1989.

GIOVINO, G.A., OSSIP-KLEIN, D.J., SHULMAN, E., BLACK, P., LURIER, A.,
SEMENTILLI, E., et al. Determinants of Relapse and Redictom of Outcome fir
Callers to a Smoking Relapse Prevention Hotline. Presented at the meeting of the
Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago, Illinois, November
1986.

GLASGOW, R.E., KLESGES, R.C., MIZES, J.S., PECHACEK, T.F. Quitting smoking:
Strategies used and variables associated with success in a stop-smoking contest.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical l?&wlogy 53(6):905-912, December 1985.
GLASGOW, R.E., KLESGES, R.C., VASEY, M.W. ControlIed smoking for chronic
smokers: An extension and replication. Addictive Behaviors 8(2):143-150, 1983.
GLASGOW, R.E.. LANDO, H., RAND. Pharmacologic treatment of tobacco depen-
dence: Proceedings of the world congress, November 1985. Health Ftzycholqy
Supplement 5t53-68, 1986.

GLASGOW, R.E., LICHTENSTEIN, E. Long-term effecta of behavioral smoking
cessation interventions. Behavior Thempy 18297324, 1987.
GLASGOW, R.E., LICHTENSTEIN, E., BEAVER, C.. O'NEILL, K. Subjective
reactions to rapid and normal paced aversive smoking. Addictive Behauiorn
6Gk53-59, 1981.

GLASSMAN, A.H., JACKSON, W.K., WALSH, T., ROOSE, S.P., ROSENFELD, B.
Cigarette craving, smoking withdrawal, and clonidine. Science 226:864-866,1984.
GLASSMAN, A.H., STETNER, F., WALSH, B.T., RAIZMAN, P.S., FLEX@, J.L.,
COOPER, T.B., COVEY, L.S. Heavy smokers, smoking cessation, and clonidine:
Results of a double-blind, randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical
Aeeociation 259(19):286%2866, May 29, 1988.
GLYNN, K., LEVENTHAL, H., HIRSCHM AN, R. A cognitive developmental ap
preach to smoking prevention. In: Bell, C.S., Battjea, R. &da.) Bwentim Reseamk
Deterring Drug Abuse Among Children and Adolescents, NIDA Rasearch IUon+
graph 63. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on
Drug Abuse. 1985, pp. l-152.

GLYNN, S.M. Self-Effxacy Enhancement and Smoking C&ration. Presented at the
meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Houston,
Texas, 1985.

GLYNN, S.M., GRUDER, C.L., JEGERSKI, J.A. Effects of biochemical validation of
self-reported cigarette smoking on treatment success and on misreporting absti-
nence. Health Psychology 5(2):X%-136, 1986.
GLYNN, T. J., PEARSON, H.W., SAYERS, M. (eda. Women and Drugs. Rockville. MD:
National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1983.

GODDING, P.R., GLASGOW, R.E. Selfefficacy and outcome expectations as predic-
tors of controlled smoking status. Cogxitiue Therapy and Resazmh 9:583-590,1985.
GODLEY, M.D., LUTZKER, J.R., LAMAZOR, E.A., MARTIN, J.A. Advances in
behavioral approaches to adolescent health care. In: Hersen, M., Eisler, R.M.,
Miller, P.M. (eds.) Progress in Behavior Modifuxrtion, Volume 18. Orlando:
Academic Press, 1984, pp. 227-265.

GOLDBERG, S.R., SPEALMAN, R.D., RISNER, M.E., HENNINGFIELD, J.E. Control
of behavior by intravenous nicotine injections in laboratory animals. PharmacoZo-
gy Biochemistry and Behuuior 19(6):1011-1026, December 1983.

542


GOLDING, J., MANGAN, G.L. Arousing and de-arousing effects of cigarette smoking
under conditions of stress and mild sensory isolation. Psychophysiology
19(4):449-456, July 1982.

GOLDSTEIN, S.J. Maintenance of Nonsmoking Following Self-initiated Cessation.
Doctoral Dissertation. Ann Arbor, University Microfilms International, Thesis No.
82-12783, 1981.

GOTTLIEB, A.M. The Effects of Nicotine Gum and Expectancy on Smoking Withdraw-
al Symptoms and Relapse: A Balanced Placebo Stud-v. Doctoral Dissertation.
University of Washington, 1985.

GO'ITLIEB, A., FREIDMAN, L.F., COONEY, N., GORDON, J., MARLATT, G. A.
Quitting Smoking in Self-Help: Relapse and Survival in Unaided Quitters. Paper
presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior
Therapy, Toronto, Canada, November 1981.
GO'ITLIEB, A.M., KILLEN, J.D., MARLA'IT, G.A., TAYLOR, C.B. Psychological and
pharmacological influences in cigarette smoking withdrawal: Effects of nicotine
gum and expectancy on smoking withdrawal symptoms and relapse. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55t4):606-608, August 1987.
GRABOWSKI, J.G., HALL, S.M. (eds.1 Pharmacological Adjuncts in Smoking
Cessation, NIDA Research Monograph 53. U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health
Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse. DHHS Publication No. (ADM)
85-1333, 1985.

GRADY, K.E., BRANNON, R., PLECK, J.H. The Male Sex Role: A Selected and
Annotated Bibliography. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
DHEW Publication No. (ADM) 79-790. 1979.
GRAHAM, R., GIBSON, R.W. Cessation of patterned behavior: Withdrawal from
smoking. Social Science and Medicine 5(4):319-337, August 1971.
GREAVES, L., BARNES, G.E., VULCANO, B.A. Quit for gocd: Regina smoking
cessation program. In: Forbes, W.F., Frecker, R.C., Nostbakken, D. (eds.) Proceed-
ings of the Fifth World Conference on Smoking and Health, Volume 2. Winnipeg,
Canada: Canadian Council on Smoking and Health, 1983, pp. 193-199.
GREEN L.W. Diffusion and adoption of innovations related to cardiovascular risk
behavior in the public. In: Enelow, A.J., Henderson, J.B. (eds.)Applying Behavioral
Science to Cardiovascular Risk. New York: American Heart Association, 1975.
GREENSTEIN, R.A., EVANS, B.D., McLELLAN, A.T., O'BRIEN, C.P. Predictors of
favorable outcome following naltrexone treatment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence
12173-180, 1983.

GREGORY, V.R. The Efficacy of a Cognitive-behavioral Treatment Aimed at Relapse
Prevention in Smokers. Doctoral Dissertation. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
Ann Arbor, University Microfilms International, Thesis No. 84-23635, 1984.
GRITZ, E. Women and smoking: A realistic appraisal. In: Schwartz, J.L. (ed.) Progress
in Smoking Cessation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Smoking
Cessation. New York: American Cancer Society, 1979, pp. 119-141.
GRITZ, E.R. The female smoker: Research and intervention targets. In: Cohen, J.,
Cullen, J.W., Martin, L.R. (eds.) Psychosocial Aspects of Cancer. New York: Raven,
1982, pp. 39-49.

GRITZ, E.R. Cigarette smoking by adolescent females: Implications for health and
behavior. Women and Health 9(2/3):103-115, Summer-Fall 1984.
GRITZ, E.R. Gender and the teenage smoker. In: Ray, B., Braude, M. (eds.) Women and
Drugs: A New Em for Research. NIDA Monograph 65. U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental
Health Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1986, pp. 70-79.

543


GRITZ, E.R., JARVIK, M.E. Pharmacologicai aids for the cessation of smoking. In:
Steinfeld, J., Griffiths, W., Ball, K., Taylor, R.M. teds.) Health Consequences,
Education, Cessation Activities, and Governmental Action, Volume II. Proceedings
of the Third World Conference on Smoking and Health. DHEW Publication No.
(NIH) 77-1413. 1977, pp. 575-591.

GRUNBERG, N.E. The effects of nicotine and cigarette smoking on food consumption
and taste preferences. Addictive Behaviors 7(4):317-331, 1982.
GRUNBERG, N.E. Behavioral and biological factors in the relationship between
tobacco use and body weight. In: Katkin, E.S., Manuck, S.B. (eds.) Advances in
Behavioral Medicine, Volume 2. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press, Inc., 1986, pp.
  97-129.

GRUNBERG, N.E., BOWEN, D.J., WINDERS, S.E. Effects of nicotine on body weight
and food consumption in female rats. Psychopharmacology 9@1):101-105, August
  1986.

GRUNBERG, N.E., WINDERS, S.E., POPP, K.A. Sex differences in nicotine's effects
on consummatory behavior and body weight in rats. Psychopharmacology
91:221-225, 1987.

GUERNICA, A., KASPERUK, I. Reaching the Hispanic Market Effectively: The
?fleedia, The Market, The Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
GUILFORD, J.S. Sex differences between successful and unsuccessful abstainers from
smoking. In: Zagona, S.V. (ed.) Studies and Issues in Smoking Behavior. Tucson,
Arizona: University of Arizona Press. 1967, pp. 95-102.
GUNN, R.C. Smoking clinic failures and recent life stress. Addictive Behaviors
8(1):83-87, 1983a.

GUNN, R.C. Does living with smokers make quitting cigarettes more difficult?
Addictive Behaviors 8(4):429-432, 1983b.

GUNN, R.C. Reactions to withdrawal symptoms and success in smoking cessation
clinics. Addictive Behaviors 11:49-53, 1986.
GUNN, R.C., SHAPIRO, A. Life stress, weight gain, and resuming smoking after
success in a cessation clinic. Psychological Reports 57(3, Part 2):1035-1039,
  December 1985.

HALL, R.G., SACHS, D.P.L., HALL, S.M. Medical risk and therapeutic effectiveness
of rapid smoking. Behavior Therapy l&249-259, 1979.
HALL, R.G., SACHS, D.P.L., HALL, S.M., BENOWITZ, N.L. Two-year efficacy and
safety of rapid smoking therapy in patients with cardiac and pulmonary disease.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 52(4):57-l, August 1984.
HALL, SM., BACHMAN, J., HENDERSON, J.B., BARSTOW, R., JONES, R.T.
Smoking cessation in patients with cardiopulmonary disease: An initial study.
Addicticre Behaviors 3(1):33-42, 1983.

HALL, SM., GINSBERG, D., JONES, R.T. Smoking cessation and weight gain.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 54(3):342-346. June 1986.
HALL, SM., HERNING, R.I., JONES, R.T., BENOWITZ, N.L., JACOB, P. III. Blood
cotinine levels as indicators of smoking treatment outcome. CZinicaZ Pharmucology
and Therapeutics 35(61:819-814. June 1984.
HALL, S.M., RUGG, D., TUNSTALL, C., JONES, R.T. Preventing relapse to cigarette
smoking by behavioral skill training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psycholo-
gy 52(3):372-382, 1984.

HALL, SM., TUNSTALL, C., GINSBERG, D., BENOWITZ, N.L., JONES, R.T.
Nicotine gum and behavioral treatment: A placebo controlled trial. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55(4M?O3-605, 1987.
HALL, S.M., TUNSTALL, C., RUGG, D., JONES, R.T., BENOWITZ, N. Nicotine gum
and behavioral treatment in smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology 53(2):256-258, April 1985.

544


HAMILTON, S.B., BORNSTEIN, P.H. Broad-spectrum behavioral approach to
smoking cessation: Effects of social support and paraprofessional training on the
maintenance of treatment effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
47(3):598-600, 1979.

HANSEN, W.B., COLLINS, L.M., JOHNSON, C.A., GRAHAM, J.W. Self-initiated
smoking cessation among high school students. Addictive Behaviors 10:26!%271,
  1985.

HARACKIEWICZ, J.M., SANSONE, C., BLAIR, L.W., EPSTEIN, J.A., MANDER-
LINK, G. Attributional processes in behavior change and maintenance: Smoking
cessation and continued abstinence. Journal of Consulting nnd Clinical Psychology
55:372-378, 1987.

HARRIS, J.E. Cigarette smoking among successive birth cohorts of men and women in
the United States during 199080. Journal of the National Cancer Institute
71(3):473479, September 1983.

HATSUKAMI, D., HUGHES, J.R., PICKENS, R. Characterization of tobacco with-
drawal: Physiological and subjective effects. In: Grabowslci, J., Hall, S.M. (eds)
Pharmacological Adjuncts in Smoking Cessntion, NIDA Research Monograph 53.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol,
Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Drug
Abuse. DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 851333, 1985, pp. 58-67.
HAUGEN, G.B., DIXON, H.H., DICKEL, H.A. A Therap.y for Anxiety Tension
Reactions. New York: Macmillan, 1953.

HENNESSY, M.B., FOY, T. Nonedible material elicits chewing and reduces the
plasma corticosterone response in mice. Behavioral Neuroscience 101~237-245,
1967.

HENNINGFIELD, J.E. Behavioral pharmacology of cigarette smoking. In: Thompson,
T., Dews, P.B., Barrett, J.E. teds.) Advances in Eehuuioral Pharmacology, Volume
4. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984, pp. 131-210.

HENNINGFIELD, J.E., BROWN, B.S. Do replacement therapies treat craving7 NIDA
Notes 2 13-9, 1987.

HENNINGFIELD, J.E., GOLDBERG, S.R. Control of behavior by intravenous nicotine
injections in human subjects. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behuvior
19(6):1621-1026, December 1983.

HENNINGFIELD, J.E., GOLDBERG, S.R. Stimulus properties of nicotine in animaIs
and human volunteers: A review. In: Seiden, L.S., BaIster, R.L. &Is.) Behauioml
Phurmacology. The Current Status. New York: Alan R. Lisa 1986, pp. 4334tS.
HENNINGFIELD, J.E., JASINSKI, D.R. Pharmacological basis for nicotine replace
ment. In: Pomerleau, O.F., Pomerleau, C.S., Fagerstrijm, K.O., Henningfield, J.E.,
Hughes, J.R. bds.) Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Evaluation. New York: Alan
R. Liss, in press.

HENNINGFIELD. J.E., l.ONDON, E.D., JAFFE, J.H. Nicotine Reward: Studies of
Abuse Liability and Physical Dependence Potential. In: Engel, J., Oreland, L. @Is.)
Bruin Reward Systems and Abuse. New York: Raven Press, 1987, pp. 143164.
HENNINGFIELD, J.E., MIYASATO, K., JOHNSON, R.E., JASINSKI, D.J. Rapid
physiologic effects of nicotine in humans and selective blockade of behavioral
effects by mecamylamine. In: L.S. Harris (ed.) Pm6Zem-s of Drug Dependence, I982,
NIDA Research Monograph 43. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration,
National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1982, pp. 259-265.
HENNINGFIELD, J.E., SAMPSON, A., NEMETH-COSLETT, R. Effmts of Nicotine
Replacement in Tobacco Withdrawal. Presented at the American Psychological
Association Convention, Washington, DC., August 1986.
HENNINGFIELD, J.E., STITZER, M.L., GRIFFITHS, R.R. Expired air carbon
monoxide accumulation and elimination as a function of number of cigarettes
smoked. Addictiue Behaviors 5(3):2f%5-272, 1980.

545


HERMAN, C.P., POLIVY, J. Anxiety, restraint, and eating behavior. Journnl of
A bnormnl Psychology W6W6-672, 1975.
HJRSCHMAN, R.S., LEVENTHAL, H., GLYNN, K. The development of smoking
behavior: Conceptualization and supportive cross-sectional survey data. Joumal of
Applied Social Psychology 14:184-206, 1984.
HIRVONEN, L. Premises and results of smoking withdrawal. In: Forbes, W.F.,
Frecker, R.C., Nostbakken, D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Fifth World Conference on
Smoking and Health, Volume 2. Winnipeg, Canada: Canadian Council on Smoking
and Health, 1983, pp. 215-220.

HJALMARSON, A.I.M. Effect of nicotine chewing gum in smoking eeasation. A
randomized, placebo-controlled, doubleblind study. Journal of the American
Medical Association 252GOW35-2636, November 23-36, 1984.
HJAIMABSON, A.I.M. Effects of nicotine chewing gum on smoking cessation in
routine clinical use. British Journal of Addiction 80~321324, 1985.
HOLMES, T.H., RAHE, R.H. The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research 11:213-218, 1967.
HOLROYD, J. Hypnosis treatment for smoking: An evaluative review. International
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 28341357, 1980.
HORAN, J.J., HACKETT, G., NICHOLAS, W.C., LINBERG, S.E., STONE, C.I.,
LUKASKI, H.C. Rapid smoking: A cautionary note. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology 45(3):341-343, June 1977.
HORWITZ, M.B., HINDI-ALEXANDER, M., WAGNER, T.J. Psychosocial mediators
of abstinence, relapse, and continued smoking: A one-year follow-up of a minimal
intervention. Addictive Behaviors 1029-39, 1985.
HUBA, G.J., NEWCOMB, M.D., BENTLER, P.M. Adverse drug experiences and drug
use behaviors: A one-year longitudinal study of adolescents. Journul of Pediatric
Wychology 11(2):203-219, 1986.

HUGHES, J.R. Genetica of smoking: A brief review. Behavior Therapy 17~335-345,
1986.

HUGHES, J.R. Dependence potential and abuse liability of nicotine replacement
therapies. In: Pomerleau, O.F., Pomerleau, C.S., Fagerstrom, K.-O., HenningfIeld,
J.E., Hughes, J.R. (e&x) Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Eualuation New York:
Alan R. Lii, 1988, pp. 261-2'77.

HUGHES, J.R., GUST, S.W., KEENAN, R.M., SKOOG, K.P., PICKENS, R.W.,
RAMLET, D., HEALEY, M. Efficacy of nicotine gum in geneml practice. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association,
Washington, August 1966.

HUGHES, J.R., GUST, SW.. KEENAN, R.M., SKOOG, K.P., PICKENS, R., RAMLET,
D., HEALY, M., HIGGINS, S.T. Efficacy of nicotine gum in general practice: One
year follow-up. In: Harris, L.S. (ed.1 Problems of Dnrg &pendenc~ NIDA Research
Monograph. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National
Institute on Drug Abuse, 1988.

HUGHES, J.R., HATSUKAMI, D. Short term effects of nicotine gum. In: Grabowski,
J., Hall, S.M. (eds.) Phcrrmeco logical Adjuncts in Smoking Ceesotion, NIDA
Reeearch Monograph 53. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, Nation-
al Institute on Drug Abuse. DHHS Publication No. (ADM) 851333,1985, pp. 69-61.
HUGHES, J.R., HATSUKAMI, D. Sii and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal.
Archives of Geneml &ychiatry 43(3):269-294, March 1986.
HUGHES, J.R., HATSUKAMI, D.K., PICKENS, R.W., KRAHN, D., MALINS, S.,
LUKNIC, A. Effect of nicotine on the tobacco withdrawal syndrome. Wychophar-
macology 83(1):82-87, April 1984.

HUNT, W.A., BARNE'IT. L.W., BRANCH, L.G. Relapse rates in addiction programs.
Journal of Clinical Aychology 27(4):455-M, October 1971.

546


HUNT, W.A., MATARAZZO, J.D. Habit mechanisms in smoking. In: Hunt, W.A. (ed.)
Leaning Mechanisms in Smoking. Chicago: Aldine, 1970, pp. 65-106.
HUNT, W.A., MATARAZZO, J.D. Three years later: Recent developments in the
experimental modification of smoking behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology
81(2):107-114, April 1973.

HYMAN, G.J., STANLEY, R.D., BURROWS. G.D., HORNE, D.J. Treatment effective
ness of hypnosis and behavior therapy in smoking cessation: A methodological
refinement. Addictive Behaviors 11:355-365, 1986.
HYMOWITZ, N., LASSER, N.L., SAFIRSTEIN, B.H. Effects of graduated external
filters on smoking cessation. Preventive Medicine 1185-95, 1982.
IKARD, F.F., GREEN, D.E., HORN, D. A scale to differentiate between types of
smoking as related to the management of affect. International Journal of the
Addictions 4(4):64-g, December 1969.
IKARD, F.F., TOMKINS, S. The experience of affect as a determinant of smoking
behavior: A series of validity studies. Journal of Abnormal Psycholqy
81(2):17%181. April 1973.

JACOBS, M.A., SPILKEN, A.Z., NORMAN, M.M., WOHLBERG, G.W., KNAPP, P.H.
Interaction of personality and treatment conditions associated with success in a
smoking control program. Psychosomatic Medicine 33(8X&-556, November-De
cember 1971.

JACOBSON, B. The Ludykillers: Why Smoking is a Feminist Issue. London: Pluto
Press, 1981.

JACOBSON, N.L., JACOBSON, A.A., RAY, J.P. Noncombustible cigarette: Altema-
tive method of nicotine delivery. (Abstract.) Chest 76355-356, September 1979.
JAFFE, J.H. Drug addiction and drug abuse. In: Gilman, A.G., Goodman, L.S., RaII,
T.W., Murad, F. (eds.) Goodman and Gilman$ The Pha rmacologic Basis of
Therapeutics, 7th Edition. New York: MacMillan, 1985, pp. 532-581.
JAMROZIC, K., FOWLER, G., VESSEY, M., WALD, N. Placebo controlled trial of
nicotine  chewing gum in general practice. British Medical Journal
289(6448):794-797, September 29, 1984.

JARVIK, M.E. Overview: Alternate forms of pharmacologic treatment. In: Ockene,
J.K. ted.) The Pharmacologic Treatment of Tobacco Dependence: Prwceedinga of the
World Congress. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Institute for the Study of Smoking
Behavior and Policy, 1986, pp. X4-157.

JARVIK, M.E., SCHNEIDER, N.G. Degree of addiction and effectiveness of nicotine
gum therapy for smoking. American Journal of Psychiatry 141(6):790-791, June
  1984.

JARVIS, M. Gender and smoking: Do women really find it harder to give up? British
Journal of Addiction 79263-387, 1984.

JAFWIS, M.J. Nasal nicotine solution: Its potential in smoking cessation and as a
research tool. In: Ockene, J.K. ted.1 The Pharmnco logic !lYeatment of Tobacco
lkpendcnca: Pwceedings of the World Congress. Cambridge, Massachueette:
Institute for the Study of Smoking Behavior and Policy, 1986, pp. 167-173.
JARVIS, M.J., RAW, M., RUSSELL, M.A.H., FEYERABEND, C. Randomized
controlled trial of nicotine  chewing-gum.  British Medical Journal
2856341):537-540, August 21, 1982.

JARVIS, M.J., RUSSELL, M.A.H. Smoking withdrawal in patients with smoking
related diseases. (Letter.) British Medical Journul 286(6369):976-977, March 19,
  1983.

JASINSKI, D.R., HENNINGFIELD, J.E. Conceptual basis of replacement therapies
for chemical dependence. In: Pomerleau, O.F., Pomerleau, C.S., Fagerstrijm, K.-O.,
Henningfield, J.E., Hughes, J.R. (eds.) Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Evalu-
ation. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1988, pp. 13-34.

547


JASINSKI, D.R., JOHNSON, R.E., KOCHER, T.R. Clonidine in morphine withdrawal:
Differential effects on signs and symptoms. Archives of Geneml Psychiatry
42:1663-1066, November 1985.

JAVEL, A.F. One-session hypnotherapy for smoking: A controlled study. Psycho&i-
caI Reports 46(Part 0895-899, June 1980.
JESSOR, R., JESSOR, S.L. Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A
longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
JOFFE, R., LOWE, M.R., FISHER, E.B. Jr. A validity test of the Reasons for Smoking
Scale. Addictive Behaviors w041-45, 1981.
JOHNSTON, L.M. Tobacco smoking and nicotine. Lancet 2742, 1942.
JONES, C.L., BA'ITJES, R.J. The context and caveats of prevention research and drug-
abuse. In Jones, C.L., Battjes, R.J. Ms.) Etiology of Dnrg Abuse: Zmplicatione for
Prevention, NIDA Research Monograph 56. U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health
Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1985, pp. 1-12.
KABAT, G.C., WYNDER, E.L. Determinants of quitting smoking. American Journal
of Public Heulth 77:1361-1305, 1987.

KANDEL, D., FAUST, R. Sequence and stages in patterns of adolescent drug use.
Archives of General Psychiatry 32(7):92%932, July 1975.
KANDEL, D., SIMCHA-FAGAN, O., DAVIES, M. Risk factors for delinquency and
illicit drug use from adolescence to young adulthood. The Journal of Drug Zssues
1667-90, 1986.

KAROL, R.L., RICHARDS, C.S. Cognitive maintenance strategies for smoking
reduction. JSAS Catalog of Selected Dxumente in Paycholosy 11:15, 1981.
KATZ, N.W. Hypnosis and the addictions: A critical review. Addictive Behaviors
kqlk41-47, 1980.

KILLEN, J.D., MACCOBY N., TAYLOR, C.B. Nicotine gum and self-regulation
training in smoking relapse prevention. Behavior Therapy 15(3)234-248, 1984.
KLESGES, R.C., KLESGES, L.M. Cigarette smoking as a dieting strategy in a
university population. International Journal of Eating Disorders, in press.
KLESGES, R.C., MEYERS, A.W., HANSON, CL., ECK. L. Smoking cessation and
weight gain in males and females. Poster to be presented at: The Association for
the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Boston, Massachusetts, 1987.
KORNITZER, M., KI'FI'EL, F., DRAMAIX, M., BOURDOUX, P. A double-blind study
of 2 mg vs 4 mg nicotine chewing gum in an industrial setting. Jounual of
Psychoeomatic Research 31(2):171-176, 1987.
KOZLOWSKI, L.T., WILKINSON, D.A. Use and misuse of the concept of craving by
alcohol, tobacco, and drug researchers. British Journnl of Addiction 8231-36,
  1987.

KROSNICK, J.A., JUDD, CM. Transitions in social influence at adolescence: Who
induces cigarette smoking? Developmental Psychology lq3k359-368, 1982.
LAMBE, R., OSIER, C., FRANKS, P. A randomized controlled trial of hypnotherapy
for smoking cessation. Journal of Family Pmctiee 22:61-66, 1986.
LANDO, H.A. A comparison of excessive and rapid smoking in the modification of
chronic smoking behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical psvChology
4x3):350-355, June 1975.

LANDO, H.A. Successful treatment of smokers with a broad-spectrum behavioral
approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical &chology 45(3):361-366, 1977.
LANDO, H.A. Stimulus control, rapid smoking, and contractual management in the
maintenence of nonsmoking. (Ahtract. Behavior Thempy 91962963, 1978.
LANDO, H.A. Effects of preparation, experimenter contact and a maintained
reduction alternative on a broad*pectrum program for eliminating smoking.
Addictive Behaviors 6123-133, 1981.

LANDO, H.A. A factorial analysis of preparation, aversion, and maintenance in the
elimination of smoking. Addictive Behauiors 7(2):141154, 1982.

548


LANDO, H.A. Long-term modification of chronic smoking behavior: A paradigmatic
approach. Bulletin of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors 5(l)&17,
  1986.

LANDO, H.A. Lay facilitators as effective smoking cessation counselors. Addictive
Behaviors 1269-72, 1987.

LANDO, H.A., McGOVERN, P.G. Three-year data on a behavioral treatment for
smoking: A follow-up note. Addictive Behaviors 7:177-181, 1982.
LANDO, H.A., McGGVERN, P.G. Nicotine fading as a non-aversive alternative in a
broad-spectrum treatment for eliminating smoking. Addictive Behaviors
10:153-161, 1985.

LAZARUS, R.S. The stress and coping paradigm. In: Eisdorfer, C., Cohen, D.,
Kleinman, A., Maxims, P. (e&s.) Theoretical Bases for Psychopathology New York:
Spectrum, 1981.

LEVENTHAL, H., AVIS, N. Pleasure, addiction, and habit: Factors in verbal report or
factors in smoking behavior? Journal of Abnormal Psychology 85(5):478-488,1976.
LEVENTHAL, H., CLEARY, P.D. The smoking problem: A review of the research and
theory in behavioral risk modification. Psychological Bulletin 88(2):370-405, 1980.
LEVIN, E.D., MORGAN, M.M., GALVEZ, C., ELLISON, G.D. Chronic nicotine and
withdrawal effects on body weight and food and water consumption in female rats.
Phyeiology and Behavior 39(4):441-444, 1987.
LEVINSON, B.L., SHAPIRO, D., SCHWARTZ, G.E., TURSKY, B. Smoking elimina-
tion by gradual reduction. Behavior Thempy 6(5):696-698, 1975.
LI, V.C., COATES, T.J., SPIELBERG, L.A., EWART, C.K., DORFMAN, S., HUSTER,
W.J. Smoking cessation with young women in public family planning clinics: The
impact of physician messages and waiting room media. Reuentive Medicine
13(5):477-489, September 1984.

LICHSTEIN, K.L., SALLIS, J.F. Covert sensitization for smoking: In search of
efficacy. Addictive Behaviors 6(1):83-91, 1981.
LICHTENSTEIN, E. The smoking problem: A behavioral perspective. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 50(6):804-819, 1982.
LICHTENSTEIN, E. Clinic based cessation strategies. In: Ockene, J.K. fed.1 The
Pharmacologic %atment of Tobacco Dependence: Proceedings of the World
Congress. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Institute for the Study of Smoking Behavior
and Policy, 1986, pp. 205-217.

LICHTENSTEIN, E., GLASGOW, R.E. Rapid smoking: Side effects and safeguards.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45(5j:81M21. October 1977.
LICHTENSTEIN, E., GLASGOW, R.E., ABRAMS, D.B. Social support in smoking
cessation: In search of effective interventions. Behavior Thempy 17:607~19,1986.
LICHTENSTEIN, E., HARRIS, D.E., BIRCHLER, G.R., WAHL, J.M., SCHMAHL, D.P.
Comparison of rapid smoking, warm, smoky air, and attention placebo in the
modification of smoking behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Peychology
46(1):9%98, February 1973.

LINEHAN, M.M. Interpersonal effectiveness in assertive situations. In: Blechman,
E.A. (ed.) Behavior Modification with Women. New York: Guilford, 1984, pp.
  143-169.

LINEHAN, M.M., EGAN, K.J. Assertion training for women. In: Bellack, A.S.,
Hersen, M. (eds.) Research and Practice in Social Skills Daining. New York:
Plenum Press, 1979, pp. 237-271.

LIVSON, N. Smoking motives: Bases for prevention/quitting strategies. In: On-Going
Research in Smoking and Health: 1984-1985 Directory. U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Assistant Secretary for
Health. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 8650208, 1985, pp. 209-210.
MacHOVEC, F.J., MAN, S.C. Acupuncture and hypnosis compared: Fifty-eight cases.
American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 21(1):45-47, 1978.

549


MAHONEY, M.J. Cognition and Behavior Modification. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Ballinger Publishing Company, 1974.
MALCOLM, R., CURREY, H.S., MITCHELL, M.A., et al. Silver acetate gum as a
deterrent to smoking. Chest 96(1):107-111, July 1986.
MALCOLM, R.E., SILLE'IT, R.W., TURNER, J.A.M., BALL, K.P. The use of nicotine
chewing gum as an aid to stopping smoking. Psychopharmacology 70:295-296,
October 1980.
MALOTI', J.M., GLASGOW, R.E., O'NEILL, H.K., KLESGES, R.C. Co-worker social
support in a worksite smoking control program. Journal of Applied Behauior
Analysis 17(4):486-496, Winter 1984.
MANLEY, R.S., BOLAND, F.J. Side-effects and weight gain following a smoking
cessation program. Addictive Behaviors 3(4):375-3J30, 1983.
MARCUS, A.C., CRANE, L.A. Smoking behavior among US Latinos: An emerging
challenge for public health. American Journal of Public Health 75(2):X&172,
February 1986.
MARCUS, A.C., CRANE, L.A. Current Estimates of Adult Cigamtte Smoking by
Race/Ethni&ty. Paper presented at the Interagency Committee on Smoking and
Health, Washington, D.C., March 31,1987. (Available from the Office on Smoking
and Health, Rockville, Maryland.)
MARKIDES, K.S., COREIL, J., RAY, L.A. Smoking among Mexican-Americans: A
three-generation study. American Journal of Public Health 77(6):708711, June,
  1987.
MARLA'IT, G.A., GORDON, J.R. Determinants of relapse: Implications for the
maintenance of behavior change. In: Davidson, P.O., Davidson, S.M. teds.1
Behavioml Medicimz Changing Health Lifestyles. New York: Brunner/Masel,
1986, pp. 410-452.
MARLAll', G.A., GORDON, J.R. (eds.) Relapse Prevention. Maintenance Stmtegies in
the Treatment of Addictive Behnviore. New York: Guilford Press, 1986.
MARTIN, J.E., PRUE, D.M., COLLINS, F.L., Jr., THAMES, C.J. The effects of
graduated filters on smoking exposure: Risk reduction or compensation?
6167-176, 1981.
MAUSNER, B., BRANDSPIEGEL, D. The relation of pattern of support for smoking
and achievement motive in young women. In: On-going Research in Smoking and
Health: 1984-1985 D&ctory. U.S. Department of Health and Human Servicea,
Public Health Service, Office on Smoking and Health. DHHS Publication No.
(PHS) 8660298, 1986.
McDILL, MS. Structure of social systems determining attitude, knowledge, and
behavior toward disease: Micro social structures. In: Enelow, A., Henderson, J.
(eds.) Applying Behavioml Science to Cardiovascular Risk. New York: American
Heart Association, 1975, pp. 18-32.
McFALL, R.M. Smokingcessation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology 46(4):703-712, August 1978.
McGOLDRICK, K.E. Playing with fire: Women and tobacco. Journul of the American
Medical Womens Association 41(1):228, January-February 1986.
MCINTYRE, K.O., LICHTENSTEIN, E., MERMELSTEIN, R.J. Selfefficacy and
relapse in smoking cessation: A replication and extension. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology 51t41632-633, August 1983.
McINTYREKINGSOLVER, K., LICHTENSTEIN, E., MERMELSTEIN, R.J. Spouse
training in a multicomponent smokingcessation program. Behavior Thempy
  17:67-74, 1986.
McMORROW, M.J., FOKX, R.M. Nicotine's role in smoking: An analysis of nicotine
regulation. Psychological Bulletin 9X2):302327, February 1983.
McNABB, M.E., EBERT, R.V., McKUSKER, K. Plasma nicotine levels produced by
chewing nicotine gum. Journal of the American Medical Association
243(7):%X1-363, August 20, 1982.