308 SUIENUE who are to carry on investigation in research iM. Mea As is well known, every noience paam tbropffb two phases, the de-seriptioe and the experimental. h an addresu on the late Sir William Oeler, Dr. Rnfm Cole gave a delightful description of Osler's clinic a~ an example of teaching medic$e in its descriptiw phase. During the years from 1393 to 1300, 0&r', wards in Baltimore were fflld with typhoid fwer in the fall, with pneumonia during the winter. In the clinic he had a Iage blackboard for the permanent reeorde of the term, a line for each CILIIB with eueh essential facts' as onset, temperature, complications, etc. The student kept a duplicate list and elaboratei his notes at each ward -round where he studied the cases and at. each clinic where new symptoms were reported and discussed. At the end of the term, the student analyzed- the data from. ti own nof@iato terms of the percentage of complications, the range of temperature, the duration of the diaeaae, the morM its; in other words, each student wrote a textbook oJ ttihoid fwer from the .casee .he himself had seen, examin& and recorded and then compared the ffnd- inga. of his own particular 8eaaon of typhoid fever with the experience of othet years and with the per- centagea from larger numbers. In thi8 method, ou PM out with all the charm of O&r, the &dent b came the physician at his very fir& clinic and started in the method by which he WIIB to become a penuaner? student of medicine. `Thus he had training in the essential' methods `of a descriptive science, ohsema- tiou, record and'the periodic, aualysia of data, ,BESE&CH IN; MEDIC& SCHOOLS I have taken this illustration from~cbui~al teaching Trxn,Bubject of &rting,medical students,in research rather than from,the laboratory because in the Isbo- ratory it was established wen earlier,that. the student may weU.lead to : discuesion, for opinion now -varies should gain experience from apecimem~ whiah,he him- aU the way from the theory that nope should ,try N+ self prepared and .atudied, that he alumhi analyze his d. up, to the id+.. that ,every medical student &ouid undertake a problem. In ;the presentation of _ ,. own n&&al and compare h.ia dt.s with the vnh in his te%t&ook and in the literature. It may now be the-snbje~t a~. I see, it, it will be well, to make ulesr taken for granted that the method of descriptiivs at. the o&et. @at .ons. of thea elementa of liberty in 8cience-Observatioq re4xrd,. anal*re so flr& education is freedom-, for I the. individual teacher to I intrencbed in the fundamental &I& &eu to Gl carry out his .own ;ide!aa; .`ia. other wozds, outstanding med&al students that every single a&dent i mcaliciu? ability for teaching and eq~~ially for leading rrtndenta. mu& z-&&e that the days when medic$e"coald nde intoresearchhas 80 largean element of natural gift. guately`be descaibsca m the ,&t :of he&g'bRve gone ok crdive `talent ~,methoda:must vary with each fore&; for.6 the:`ffns"ti of*d&lind with'pdtienu tMcheP. j $!,' ApPrt 1, 1gz71 SOZENOE 309 af m&icfJ. ecience to warrant his gm in e~,. In advocatiug my OTB tbmvj that the nal etuad, 15~3 by this phmse I mar? the ith m#pdODd bsnt bWAPd MP& hdd t,~ undmtake A problam duting the these objections soem to be af little fimt place, the medical course, Eke other educational course, ia WAtl8llsp organized t the average student geta thrOU& ou1 k amPlY the fact that ;in medicine, as in all other only a few +ow ohtfding tibtiity. St t gayiw that the exceptional StUht ctsn n the ~v.t&qp ~t.ad a ~tndent t&&d to do should be able to csrry `the xqpla~ Work If an occplaiod &dent has aa in-t vely Gmitd~ to 61ome pnoblem that he an also can-y the co&se; he can readily work for the of doctor of philosophy in the medical 8ciencea US limit the amoUnt of general work to the 0~s required for that degree. 1 L far #aa mastery of thh lihtum if4 t?muxmt?d, any perma beginning research mm& der;&d nt the outset on tbe one who' ~WZXWM.& a problem On which he can start as a next feasible step GI the prOgrcss of medical science. 3.n 0~7 own time@xn acientiSc journals have multiplied in nun&z to such an extent that any investigator cxmld oec~py his eritire,~time with reading to the exclusion of ,~originai research, Fe will do well to recognize, Br& that, professional research workem. themselves : do make use of such c0opc3ative endeavor in tht+mastery `of literature as is r~yrt%senLcd in suc;h jenrrnal~~ 8% ~Ph@d&caZ Re- vim md ,that the &or& ,f;o `igain, c~r~@ti mastery of literature is mom ofC%n eon&rued with the &or issue of priority rather than the mirjor isaxe of the advnncement of science. That work, sometimes most =luab!e work, is fre+aently overlooked is weli illus- k&d in the well&u&~ example of Mendel and has recently been brought out.:by DP; ,Arnold Rich in a d%htful accotit of Dutrochet, until riow practically renown, and yet it' was ho who tit foorwulated the ~11 theory afteeu .Yw~ before th& work of Schleideu aEd Scbwann. Rich poi.&.out tbat fr&jeentiy new ~nW.a me ignorid and r&&cl .)nkdkte the 6qip in d&h they appear' is not sntltieiently , advanlcecl to WW'ehend them.-,, To this. we may. edd that the l~n for the izivestigstor .is that &eetive !presenta- tiou of ressamh invoive~ not only, the. faete but also tbeir bearing and whither they leadtas' f&r (LIP he him- 4 h able &I discern.. In ex~nn~gon with thie eon- =Pt Of a `sUpposed complete mastsry of the lit&ture, it fimm to me that often the most opiginal .miUds,, Che mindS ImM adapted to eq3rimentution, are' not the be that enjoy :aualynis and eluasii~tion of vu&' UNRE of debil'in knbwledge. `III ~oolting bad bvek on& own &&on one cm easily recall two. kinds of flr?srchem, one who presented the critical analflis, ;b's cla&fl&ion and Orgati%tioa of i1at.a and the &ST v&t88 interest was `mnwnt.rat%d on the qmwiog mne of LuowledgO. That. l&h fypcs of in&u&ion 8.2 vdu&le to ths ntudant is clear; I cnly Tvish t0 bring out the folly of trying to force Beth methods of work bto the out iodividnal. There 8~ ino&- gatoi-8 who &et with a mristeriy cfxwyt of k~o~m f&s; tberq are others, equally valuably Of& YSOsB &gj@ who prefix to mdy7~ the dettil of literature when their work ie sire&y well under way. CeL-tsidy in an age where extreme democracy in education tends toward stan@rdizatioe, we big& well consciously give the inv&igator the freedom of his individuality. Yp plea for the student is that he may depend On a few of the outstanding contributions on his proposed sub- ject `and a few of the newer articles that show him how the subject is growing at the moment, to give him an adequate et& snd that any suppoeed eom- plete mastery of literature will be acquired by him, if nt all, only by loug years of study. Moreover, the ixgiming of IL problem Of his Own till seize to stimulab as well as 1;s `give directian and purpose tohisr+eading. In coitrust : to the idea that no studen{: y.Hou!d tmdertake A problem there area medical schoois organ- ized on ,the basis of research for every ELX~&. Tbla means the at&upt to orgauize the work for ibe medi- cal degree on the same basis as the work for the de- gree of doctor of philosophy. This method has the advantage in argument that it is now being W=I+XI cm with success and comes nrxhr my or&uai prOviao of lib&$ for the tNi&e:; 2 everG&ss, .2 ~wjsil to exp&s whai, s&i to md to be wealinwce~ of .he system. In medical schools as they are now organ- ized, only a part of the s&dents are to be&ome pro- f-ion& r~ear& wo&crs and yet it is perfectly cleap that every stud&, whether preparing for prac-. tice, teaching, OP reseaxll should have the methods of scieni;e. That much should `Se carEI fos ss indi- ct.&d AbQvi3 in, the %ntk% R3df?N of mcdicni .&~a- tim. Bat, when every student is crsciigmd B pmbIem, m.uch nf the work? iuded 1 thiuk one coald ~1s the majority of the work, .,will tulm ont to ha the writing. of ,831 eaeay ixndfui of t&e przsenhti.ou of Cl9 r*vib of original investigation. This I think wit1 he Me for two reasoha, dret the limitations of the studeuls themselves ahd second the limitations of t,he capacity of any fsculty for directing research. It is in my opinion entirely feasible to train every single student in a medical school in the methoclx of dexriptive s&nce; bat medicine has p-d far beyond th6 stage of Eli dehiptivrr science, it is now ia the experimental' phme asd %e nnd of tJ.v medical s&1001 of to-day 310 SCIENCE [VOL LXV, No. 1683 2 to furnish a c&ain number of prDfessiona1 I+ search workers in experimental medicine. This is the problem of our day; the problem of u medical education from an-art to a science W- att*&ed thirty years ap when the laborat4ee became ao dominant, but today it is the need of m&aim aa au experimental s&n00 that mud Oooapy d~cational thought, The story of medioine of the last fifty years has aompletely committed the medical profession to the concept of the control and rnaatery of &me, to an idea of life with health as an entirely feasible goal, the time of reaching the goal to be determined by the ability of the profession to handle eqerimental medicine. Mediaal sahool8 must now train physiciana to Carry ,out the ever-advanaing tiethods of medical scicme and to inarease the knowledge of the control of dia- e8see IU my opinion the major factor in llnding those who will undertake experimenti reeear& ia the in- tsllsatual quality of the teacher. He must preuent hiaacieneewithlife,hemusthimaelfaeemedicineaa a gmwing subject, with emphasis in his lectures and in discussions with students on new points of attack in places where new work is feasible 80 that it will be ideas that lead students toward research. It seems to me that the teaober should both suggest reaear& to the student he deems especially fitted for the work and'that he should be receptive and undemtandlng toward the student who `aska for rwear& I can not but.feel,that the leading of atudenta towardreaeamh `by `charm of ideas muat be .more attractive to any teacher than any application of an "all or none theory' to re4.amh. To seleat or accept tha right stucler&, to ehooae feasible problems,,to dir& studerAs M) $I) to retain th6irin~tOMl38llth&O~~,~~tll Out their di5cnltiem t0 some extent,' ye4 not too mu& letnoonethinkthiaansssyta&orati~w~eh anyteaehernomatterhowmnehoftheaupermanhe ~Y~~YexpeGt~~iIkeverpcasc3,bntith thamostfW5nat&taskof all.teaehing. Themea- sureofitesu~i6the- uwasmw of the pro&a of eQBerimH medicine.. Any -plan of t.e r& sear& WOAW, whether involving all the &&e&s .Or 8 6ekded group, muat be judged by the numbers aatuauy fxained~in the eappriment8l method, Bny- thingleeathanthiamiRaea$hepointofourplwent nedIs. ; Trainingineuperimentalaoieneeueedaadegreeof rupmviaion that must neeeu&lyll& the numb for each tea&r. The use of animals alone pute .the need of. supervision beyond argument and the me& ads of zwearah are of eve&erwaaing uxuple&y. .BythisImean~tcnrenifthepoliayofrul~~- tion involves giving every student a problem, it e actually be only the few that get adequate t* in an experimental problem. Bttt of more importsuM than fill these tdahnical matter19 of supervision and of training in method is the attitude of the teacher l&. self. He may present his own theories which a often be the basis for the start of the student, hvi he must leave the student's mind free to judge the evidence for himself and free to dilYer with his in. struotor; under any other terms thm is no liberty in edt~c~tion. NO Escher hae unlimited probleau which he is capable of directing. His own work does not have unlimited new points of attack at any one time, but the new problems develop eo&antly as the work grows. Thus the taking of research studenta doee not fit readily into a routine; each school ia organized to take 8 Bt.bd number Of new studenta into its classee each year, but the number of nev rceaarch atudenta a teacher can take depends on RV- eral variable such as the number of the older group that ~bave tihed their problems, the status of the teacher's own work, etc. ' Any method which might involve an assignment of research students to a given teacher would in my judgment be most unfortunate. One of the most t33sential requirements .for success ie an int.ellaxtal compatibility between student and teacher resting on the basis of free ehoiee on both sides. Itiaramthntat.eaohercandire&m4eamhthatis ftir from the range of hie own work either pa& or prtwx$ but this does not mean that every or even any atudenta should be brought directly into the teaehe.98 own problem, but it doee mean that the teacher must be famXa.r with the ideaa and the type of methodu k glani~ at any of the scientific jour- nds of the day will shcw that medical rwJearch is tending markedly toward joint endeavor. This iR inevitable b&auae the complexity of experimental methoda puts e&&n problems, and now an ever inere4ng number of them entirely out of the MOP of `ability of. a single worker. This ia true in the use of a given technique and in problw that iuvol~ the tmhniquea of two or more bran&a of `the medied scien~ as, for eaample, the eombinit&na of biolo& cal and abemical research. Such joint. endeavor is of the utmost advantage to science and to tralued inve~ tigatom t&end-. To.bring a etudent just be@ ning reseamh into joiit reisamh is, in my opinioa, sometimer juatM& and f&blg but it:muat dwW be done with the atim& cuw aud foresight lest the s~t~e~y~taahgiaknmd~po@~ al~8deJqu8te tidning. The deation of 8 pro~m for a student n&s ELM &u&merit. It should be a faak, in the fIrat pls@, w&h is feasible. The trained iu&igator aan